By my understanding, a genus is a wider class of things to which a particular thing belongs. A differentia is the differentiating attribute(s) which distinguish(es) that type of thing from the wider class to which it belongs.

For example, a frog is an amphibious animal. The differentia in this case is "amphibious," and the genus is "animal."

Although this preliminary definition incorporates a differentia and a genus, and might function satisfactorily for a young child, a person might learn that there are many other amphibious animals other than frogs. Such a person might satisfy needs for deeper clarity and articulation by then formulating a more specific, genus-differentia definition.

A much more specific definition of "frog" could be: "Any of numerous tailless, aquatic, semiaquatic, or terrestrial amphibians of the order Anura and especially of the family Ranidae, characteristically having a smooth moist skin, webbed feet, and long hind legs adapted for leaping."²

In this more specific definition, broadly speaking, the genus is "amphibian," and the differentia includes all the attributes that together distinguish frogs from other amphibians.

Notes

¹Although this definition and the elaboration I've provided are mine, I'm grateful for inspiration that I drew while formulating it from both Ayn Rand's nonfiction book, Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, and from David Kelley's book, The Art of Reasoning.

²"frog," The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. www.bartleby.com/61/. [June 30, 2005.]

Elaboration

An emotion is a specific type of feeling, which not only includes a sense of the need satisfying significance of some aspect of reality to oneself, but also the degree of such significance.

Note

¹Although this is strictly my own definition, I'm grateful for what I've learned from the inventions of two others. First, I'm grateful for Nathaniel Branden's discussion and definition of "emotion" in his book, The Psychology of Self-Esteem. Second, I'm grateful for Marshall Rosenberg's discussion of the dynamics and role of emotions and feelings in his book, Nonviolent Communication: A Language of Life and elsewhere.

Elaboration

Organisms exercise their capacities as means to achieve ends in an effort to satisfy their needs. Nonliving things act, but not for ends, and lack needs.

The concept "end-directed action" ultimately can be defined only ostensively. See DEFINITION (OSTENSIVE).

Notes

¹Although I characterize its nature differently, I did start thinking seriously about end-directed action in major part thanks to Ayn Rand's discussion of life's nature in her speech, "The Objectivist Ethics." This speech was reprinted in her book, The Virtue of Selfishness.

Each organism exists in a specific environment. For example, as I write this, my daughter, Aliana, lays napping on a bed. An organism's capacities – and its efforts to satisfy its needs – exist in relationship to potentials within its environment. Aliana's capacity to nap exists in relationship to the bed's potential to support her comfortably while she sleeps.

Note

¹"environment." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. www.bartleby.com/61/. [June 24 2005]

Ultimately, this concept can be defined only ostensively. See DEFINITION (OSTENSIVE).

Ultimately, this concept can be defined only ostensively. See DEFINITION (OSTENSIVE).

A feeling is an affective experience. Feeling is experienced physically and mentally, but non-sensory-perceptually, because it differs from sense-perceptions of pleasure or pain, such as those experienced in taste or touch.

Elaboration

The law of identity - the principle that each existent is what it is - is one example.

The GURPS rules are flexible in multiple ways.

1. The GURPS rules are generic.

The game rules include a relatively simple, generic core which remains compatible with the addition of increasingly more detailed, but optional, rules.

Such optional rules often are added for the sake of increasing the game's sense of realism (in the sense of real-world simulation). Using a minimum of general, core rules, a given group may opt to play a game that's simple and fast-moving.

Alternatively, a group may include an abundance of optional, but more detailed rules, achieving an intensified sense of realism - but also playing a game with a slower pace.

By combining the generic core and a moderate number of optional rules, a given gaming group can strike its own, preferred balance between speed and ease of play on the one hand, and a sense of realism, on the other, choosing with what aspects to emphasize realism and with what aspects to emphasize speed of play.

This generic quality of the core rules is one aspect that enables GURPS to function as an expandable, yet integrated, system. (The systematic nature of GURPS is explored as part of point 5, below.)

2. GURPS is universal. The game rules provide a universal platform on the basis of which to play. The rules do so in at least four, distinguishable ways.

a. The game rules welcome the adaptation or creation of virtually any imaginable adventuring environment - whether fantasy or historical; past, present or future. Thus, the rules universally facilitate the use of any adventure setting or world.

b. Similarly, the game rules welcome the adaptation or creation and roleplaying of virtually any imaginable character. Thus, by facilitating the adventuring of any variety of character, the rules are likewise universal.

c. By encouraging the optional use of virtually any role-playing game supplements or source books - whether they were specifically designed for use with GURPS or with other games - the GURPS rules are universal in a third sense.

d. By equally encouraging the optional use of virtually any source material, whether historical or fictional, and whether in the form of books, magazines, television, movies or virtually any other medium - the rules are universal in yet a fourth sense.

3. GURPS enables and encourages satisfying role-play.

By employing a point system for the purposes of character creation and development, the game rules encourage both imaginative character creation and satisfying role-play.

4. GURPS enables and encourages satisfying role-play.

The rules emphasize that whatever details or optional rules are used, the object of the game is to have fun. In this respect, the rules encourage satisfying role-play.

5. GURPS establishes a standard for expanding a given group's adventure gaming systematically. This is so in at least, three senses.

a. By providing a simple, generic core onto which however many more detailed rules optionally may be added, the rules facilitate systematic expansion. (The generic nature of the game's rules is explored more in point 1, above.) Even the optional rules range from the relatively simple to the highly detailed, and as few or as many may be added while still preserving the game's systematic integrity. In this sense, the rules are designed to function with one another as a unified whole, rather than as a contradictory patch work.

b. Steve Jackson Games ensures that GURPS-branded material maintains what in their judgment qualifies as a high standard of quality and such material remains consistent with the core rules. Using such material, a given group can expand its adventure gaming in a way that's thoroughly consistent, systematic and integrated.

c. By emphasizing a foundation of realism (in the sense of real-world simulation), the rules welcome the systematic incorporation of practically any other source material - even material that was never intended for use with GURPS. The rules do so in at least two, distinguishable ways.

i. The rules feature such real-world units of measure such as feet, yards and miles, which help to facilitate the adaptation of material from games, books and other sources.

ii. Perhaps ironically, this foundation in realism also facilitates the adaptation of fantastic settings, situations and characters. Only those things that differ in a given fantasy need to be changed, while the rest can be left alone.

Note

¹The word GURPS is a trademark of Steve Jackson Games. In writing the foregoing commentary about GURPS, in my opinion, I've benefited from inspiration that I drew from such rules sources as GURPS Basic Set: Characters and GURPS Lite. Even so, the definition and elaboration that I'm offering here are my own. Please note that I don't assume that Steve Jackson Games would necessarily agree with my formulations.

The concept "identity" ultimately can be defined only ostensively.

Notes

¹I'm grateful for what I regard as the benefit that my definition here has gained from the inspiration of Ayn Rand's "axiom" of identity (which she also calls a "law," as many have before her), which she discusses in her novel, Atlas Shrugged, and in her nonfiction book, Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology.

Interpersonally, liberal religion: 1) refrains from imposing established, traditional, orthodox, or authoritarian positions or dogmas on its participants or on others; 2) welcomes the exploration of various traditions; 3) encourages the consideration of new ideas; and, within the context of peaceful interaction, 4) tolerates the different ideas and behavior of others.²

Notes

¹Such sources can include, but are not limited to: mythology; historical and religious traditions; humanism, philosophy and science. Cf., "liberal," The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. www.bartleby.com/61/. [June 24, 2005.]

²Unitarian Universalism is but one manifestation of liberal religion. Cf. Ibid. See UNITARIAN UNIVERSALISM.